Venetian politics: everything about the state apparatus
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My passion for all things Italian truly ignited during my visits to Rome. Exploring the city's ancient ruins and delving into its rich history, I became fascinated with the political systems that shaped the Roman Empire and the subsequent Papal Supremacy. Each visit deepened my understanding of Rome's governance and influence on Western civilization. However, when I first set foot in Venice, I was struck by how different it felt. While visiting the city's monuments, I quickly realized they resulted from a history and political system utterly different from what I had encountered in Rome. Reading about the Venetian Republic, its Doges, and the various councils left me somewhat bewildered.
And thus, determined to make sense of it all, I put some effort into understanding Venice's state apparatus. In this post, I'll describe the separate layers of the Republic's government. Hopefully, this insight will help you appreciate the city's monuments — especially the Doge's Palace — even more.
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The Venetian Republic's state apparatus |
The Doge
The Doge — a title derived from the Latin word 'Dux,' meaning 'leader' — held the highest position of authority in the Republic of Venice. The role dates back to 698, when Paolo Lucio Anafesto became the first to hold the position. At that time, however, the Venetians were still under Byzantine rule, which limited the Doge's authority.
Over the centuries, as Venice grew and gained independence from Byzantium, the Doge's power increased. But this lasted only a short time. By the 11th century, Venice had become fully independent, and it was decided that the Doge's should share power with councilors. Also, from then on, the role of the Doge was no longer inherited but chosen through election.
Choosing a Doge was an intricate process designed to reflect the will of the elite while minimizing the risk of corruption. The selection involved a series of random draws and elections by the Great Council and other governing bodies, ensuring that nobody could manipulate the outcome. The entire process of selecting a Doge was absurdly complex — and that's an understatement; you can look it up if you want.
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After the election, the Doge swore an oath of office, which expanded over time. By the time of the last Doge in 1797, the oath covered over 300 pages of rules and restrictions! After taking office, the Doge held no executive, legislative, or decision-making power. On top of that, he could not perform any governmental duties independently and could only leave the Palace for official occasions. He even needed special permission to leave the city for a few days. Lacking real power, the role of Doge was largely symbolic, representing the authority and grandeur of the Republic.
A Doge typically served for life. After the death of each Doge, a commission of inquisitors would review his actions. If they found him guilty of corruption or misconduct, his estate would be fined for any discovered wrongdoing. Sounds like a dream job, huh? I would definitely pass…
Noteworthy Doges
Over the centuries, Venice had 120 Doges, each shaping the city in their way. As you can imagine, some gained fame for their accomplishments, while others became infamous for misdeeds. Below are some of the names I've come across most often.
Sebastian Ziani (1172–1178)
Ziani was the wealthiest man in Venice. He also had a clear vision for the city's future and wasn't afraid to put his money where his mouth was. He often used his own fortune to shape the city, creating landmarks that still define Venice today. Among them are the Piazza San Marco, the two granite columns with statues of Venice's patron saints and a large part of the Doge's Palace.
However, the highlight of his career came in 1177 when he brought together Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Pope Alexander III, who had been at war for years. As a sovereign independent power, Ziani took the role of peacemaker and convinced both parties to meet in Venice and work out a truce.
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Enrico Dandolo (1192–1205)
Ruling as the 41st Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo left a lasting mark on the city. Despite being of age and blind, he led the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade. Dandolo's influence was crucial in redirecting the Crusaders' mission, leading them to sack Constantinople in 1204 rather than liberating Jerusalem as initially intended.
Under his command, Venetian forces captured immense treasures from the Byzantine Empire. Among the most iconic hauls were the 'Triumphal Quadrigas.' These majestic bronze statues of four horses were originally part of the Hippodrome of Constantinople, symbolizing victory and power. After arriving in Venice, they were installed on the terrace of the Basilica di San Marco facade in 1254.
Another notable treasure was the 'Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs,' a sculpture depicting the four rulers of the Empire instituted by Emperor Diocletian. Today, this sculptural group is incorporated in the corner of the basilica's facade.
But, most importantly, Dandolo's victory gave Venice massive control over trade in the eastern Mediterranean.
Marino Faliero (1354–1355)
Doge Marino Faliero, the 55th Doge of Venice, is one of the city's most infamous figures. His reign ended abruptly after his involvement in a failed conspiracy to overthrow the Venetian government. But why plan a coup if you're already the head of state? There are several possible causes.
The city's condition upon Faliero's appointment likely played a major role. The Genoese war was in full swing, with Genoese galleys ravaging Venetian trade. Merchants, desperate for peace, erupted in outrage. However, the Genoese destroyed the Venetian fleet, shattering their hopes. Faliero blamed the weak, ineffective nobles who had failed to win the war.
Another possible cause was Faliero's temper. During a gathering at the Doge's Palace, a young noble, Michael Steno, loudly mocked Faliero, claiming his young wife was often unfaithful. Enraged, Faliero had Steno thrown out. However, Steno returned secretly and left a message on the Doge's throne: "Marino Faliero has a beautiful wife; other men enjoy her while he pays the price." Furious, Faliero pressed charges against Steno, who only received light punishment. This left Faliero feeling betrayed and eager to seek revenge on all the nobles.
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We may never know Faliero's true motives, but we do know how the coup ended. Someone betrayed him before he could carry out his plan, and the Council of Ten learned about the plot. To stop it, they executed everyone involved, including Faliero, who confessed his guilt and was beheaded.
Subsequently, the authorities condemned the Doge to 'damnatio memoriae,' condemnation of memory — a punishment that erased him from all official records. Accordingly, Faliero's portrait in the Sala del Maggior Consiglio (Hall of the Great Council) in the Doge's Palace was painted over with a black shroud. You can still spot it when you visit. The shroud reads: "Hic est locus Marini Faletro decapitati pro criminibus" (This is the space for Marino Faliero, beheaded for his crimes).
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Francesco Foscari (1423–1457)
The last Doge I want to highlight is Francesco Foscari, Venice's 65th and longest-serving leader. Foscari allied with Florence against Milan, which at the time aimed to dominate all of northern Italy. Although Venice achieved significant victories, the war proved extraordinarily costly. Milan's forces, led by Francesco Sforza, ultimately defeated the Venetians. Sforza then made peace with Florence and allied with them against the increasing territorial threat of Venice. The conflict between Venice and Milan, known as the Wars in Lombardy, lasted from 1423 until the signing of the Treaty of Lodi in 1454.
During the Wars in Lombardy, in 1445, the Council of Ten tried Foscari's son, Jacopo, for bribery and corruption. They found him guilty and exiled him to Treviso. In 1456, they put him on trial again, this time accusing him of secretly communicating with the Duke of Milan and the Ottoman Sultan. After spending a year in prison, they sent him back to Crete, where he died later that same year.
Jacopo's death led Foscari to step back from his government duties, and in October 1457, the Council of Ten forced him to resign. A few days later, Foscari passed away.
Foscari's life was the inspiration for Lord Byron's 1821 play 'The Two Foscari,' which eventually became the basis for the libretto of Giuseppe Verdi's opera 'I due Foscari.'
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The Full College
Now, let's move on to the Venetian political system. The easiest way to visualize the governmental power structure is to think of a pyramid with the Doge at the top. This comparison isn't completely accurate, mainly because of the limited independent power of the Doge, but forgive me for that.
The main executive body and cabinet of the Republic of Venice was the Pien Collegio, or Full College. It handled a wide range of responsibilities, including preparing and coordinating the Senate's work, managing the correspondence of ambassadors, welcoming foreign delegations, and driving legislative and political initiatives.
The Full College consisted of the Signoria (which included the Doge) and a group of senior magistrates called 'Savi,' or wise men. Though there certainly are differences, you could more or less compare the Savi to ministers in modern-day governments. The Savi operated in specialized groups, each focusing on specific areas:
The Savi del Consiglio, or Savi Grandi, comprised six members selected from the Senate. Their primary duties included preparing the government's agenda, framing resolutions, defending them, and supervising their execution.
The Savi agli Ordini also comprised six members. They oversaw maritime matters, including commerce, the Venetian navy, and the Republic's overseas colonies.
The Savi di Terraferma had five members who handled financial and military matters concerning Venice's mainland territories.
The College met daily, with the Doge (as part of the Signoria) presiding and the Savi Grandi setting the agenda.
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The Signoria
The Doge, together with the officials commissioned to collaborate and rule with him, formed the Signoria. These officials were the Minor Council and the three leaders of the Council of Forty.
The fundamental task of the Signoria was to preside over the major assemblies of the state: the Full College, the Great Council, the Senate, and the Council of Ten. The members of the Signoria also had the power to propose and vote on laws in the presided-over assemblies and to convene the Great Council at any time.
Presiding over the various assemblies made the Signoria a key part of the government, even more important than the Doge. This became especially clear during the ceremonies marking a Doge's death, when the phrase "se l'è morto el Doge, non-l'è morta la Signoria" (The Doge is dead, but not the Signoria) was often said as a ritual.
These means of power made the Signoria a very important part of government, even more so than the Doge himself. This was especially evident during Doge-funeral ceremonies, when the ritual phrase "se l'è morto el Doge, non-l'è morta la Signoria" (The Doge is dead, but not the Signoria) was spoken to emphasize that the government would continue, even after the Doge's death.
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The Minor Council
The Minor Council, also known as the Doge's Council, was a key part of the Venetian Republic's government. It advised the Doge and worked alongside him. They initiated policies and made sure other councils performed their jobs correctly.
The council comprised six ducal councilors, one for each of Venice's districts. Once elected by the Great Council, these ducal councilors couldn't refuse the position without facing serious penalties. They held the position for one year, followed by a second year.
To balance and limit the Doge's power, the council required his decisions to have the approval of at least four councilors. On the other hand, the Minor Council could make decisions without the Doge being there.
When the Doge was absent, or during a transition period, the Minor Council handled all government duties, and one councilor acted as Vice Doge. In case the Doge's position was vacant, they also managed the process of electing a new Doge.
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The Council of Forty
The Council of Forty, or Quarantia, likely started in the early 13th century as a group of forty electors responsible for nominating the Doge. Nine electors, chosen by the Concio, selected these forty members.
As time passed, the Quarantia's role shifted. Initially, they handled legislative, representative, and executive duties, but those responsibilities later moved to the Senate and the Savi. The Quarantia kept its most critical role as the highest judicial authority, with the Great Council selecting forty judges.
As judicial demands grew, the Supreme Court later expanded into three separate Quarantie. The leader of each Quarantia, along with the Doge and the Minor Council, formed the Signoria (remember?).
But what set the three Quarantie apart?
The Criminal Quarantia handled misdemeanors, felonies, and most criminal cases. However, for death penalty decisions, they needed confirmation from the Signoria.
The Old Civil Quarantia dealt with civil law appeals from Venice and the Stato da Mar, the Republic's maritime and overseas territories.
The New Civil Quarantia focused on civil law appeals from the Domini di Terraferma, the Republic's mainland territories.
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The Senate
The Senate emerged as a response to the growing influence of the aristocracy in the Republic and the need to manage the Republic's expanding territory. The initial Senate started with sixty men chosen by the Great Council. Their job was tohandle decisions about taxes, trade, foreign relations, and military plans.
As time went on, the Senate grew. First, twenty extra members — known as the 'Zonta' (Venetian for 'addition') — joined. That number later went up to forty and then sixty. From there, the Senate continued expanding as members of the Council of Forty and the Council of Ten became part of it. Judges, financial officials, provincial governors, ambassadors, and senior military commanders also took seats ex officio.
The Senate included about 300 members at its height, but their roles varied. Some could vote, others could propose ideas, and a few could do both. Some couldn't vote or propose anything at all. However, only around 230 members had voting rights.
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The Great Council
The origins of the Great Council are unclear, but it likely grew out of the Concio, the general assembly of the people. In its early days, the Great Council managed elections, passed laws, and handled judicial tasks like granting pardons. By the 13th century, it had grown to 300–400 members. This size made it too unwieldy to work efficiently. To fix this, smaller councils, like the Council of Forty, took on many of its responsibilities. These smaller groups were more capable of action.
Eventually, the Senate also stepped in, taking care of tasks such as nominating military leaders or welcoming ambassadors. Over the 15th and 16th centuries, the Senate also became the de facto legislative body. The Great Council's role was reduced to discussing or approving decisions already made by the Senate, though it still had the power to elect many political offices and senior councils that ran the Republic. Think of it as the gatekeeper to power and prestige in Venice.
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Regarding the size of the Great Council, it steadily expanded, reaching its peak at around 2,750 members in the early 16th century. Most of these members were patricians (nobles) since the council excluded men born to women of lower status. As historian Frederic C. Lane puts it:
"One can say that the Great Council contained all the most important people who were available in Venice and a sprinkling of others named to it because someone thought they were potentially important."
Given the size of the Great Council, they needed a large space for their meetings. Among the rooms they used was the Chamber of the Great Council in the Doge's Palace. You'll easily spot this room if you plan to visit the Palace. It's enormous! It's not only the largest and most impressive room in the Doge's Palace but also one of the largest in Europe!
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The Concio
The Concio was the general assembly of free citizens — both plebeians and patricians — initially responsible for electing the Doge. Despite this power, several Doges tried to alter the process, shifting the monarchy from an elective to a hereditary system. They often succeeded. Between the 8th and 11th centuries, at least fifteen Doges inherited their position through family ties or close relations instead of being elected.
To fix this, the Concio banned the practice of association to the throne in 1032. After that, the Concio became a key decision-making body in the state. As a result, it had to establish permanent institutions to replace the old ducal power structures. Over time, this led to the creation of the Great Council, and the Concio lost much of its say in choosing the Doge.
At the same time, the ancient noble families formed a powerful aristocracy able to influence and steer the city's politics. As a consequence, all governmental bodies became more and more aristocratic.
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The Serrata del Maggior Consiglio, or Great Council Lockout, further solidified this shift by reducing the Concio's role to mostly ceremonial duties. The change made membership in the Great Council hereditary, excluding minor aristocrats and plebeians from participating in the Republic's government.
In 1310, Baiamonte Tiepolo, a young and rebellious noble, tried to restore power to the lower classes by plotting to overthrow Venice's government. But his plan fell apart because of betrayal, poor planning, and a lack of support. The rebels were stopped near Piazza San Marco by forces loyal to the Doge.
Deprived of any real power, the Concio was officially abolished in 1423.
The story goes that Baiamonte Tiepolo's troops stopped just before they reached Piazza San Marco. Startled by the noise from the street, Giustina Rossi, an elderly woman, leaned out of her window. In doing so, she (accidentally?) dropped a heavy mortar, which struck the flag bearer of the rioting army on the head, killing him instantly. The incident threw the rebels into chaos, allowing the regular army to defeat them swiftly.
If you walk through the archway of the Torre dell'Orologio toward the Merceria, look up to your left. Above the arch of Sotoportego del Cappello, you'll see a bas-relief of Giustina Rossi dropping a mortar.
The Council of Ten
Baiamonte Tiepolo's failed coup led to the creation of the Council of Ten. It started was a temporary group of ten magistrates, selected by the Great Council, tasked with investigating the plot. However, by 1455, the council's powers became permanent.
The Council of Ten doesn't fit into the governmental power structure I've discussed in this post; nonetheless, it was still incredibly powerful.
The council's main job was to protect the Republic and prevent the government from being overthrown or corrupted. However, due to its small size and ability to make decisions swiftly, it soon gained nearly unlimited authority over all government affairs. The Council of Ten took charge of Venice's diplomacy and intelligence services, managed military affairs, and handled legal issues and enforcement. By the end of the 16th century, the council had transformed into Venice's secretive spy agency, overseeing an extensive intelligence network across the city.
To carry out their work, the council relied on secret funds, a network of anonymous informers, police powers, and broad authority over state security matters. They even went so far as to install 'bocche dei leoni' around the city. These special letterboxes, often shaped like intricately carved (lion) faces, let Venetians anonymously report suspected illegal activities by dropping a written note into the 'mouth' of the letterbox.
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When it came to convicting someone, the Council of Ten had the power to impose severe punishments on nobles, including banishment or even execution. Remember the infamous Doge Marino Faliero I mentioned? After his failed coup, the Council of Ten sentenced him to death.
In 1539, the Council of Ten established a powerful new tribunal called the State Inquisitors. This tribunal consisted of three judges selected from the council's own ranks. Their main responsibility was to protect the state's security, holding authority equal to that of the entire council. With this immense power, they could prosecute and convict anyone accused of treason, often doing so in secrecy and with minimal evidence.
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I hope this post gave you some useful insights into Venetian politics. If you have any questions, feel free to leave a comment below!
